Medical Practice During Civil War - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 5 Words: 1638 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2019/05/15 Category History Essay Level High school Tags: Civil War Essay War Essay Did you like this example? The Civil war was one of the bloodiest battles in history, but the majority of the deaths came from infection and disease, not from perishing in battle. With the lack of medical knowledge of the time, disease was a soldiers worst enemy, no matter what side of the war they were on. Due to this lack of knowledge, 63% of all deaths (224,586 deaths) to Union soldiers and an estimated 64% of Confederate deaths were due to disease. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Medical Practice During Civil War" essay for you Create order The Southern states data is estimated, but they sustained heavy losses compared to the north, especially to their young male population. The Souths army consisted of many younger men (youngest being 16 years old) and through combat, infection, and disease nearly all of the youth in the southern states was wiped out. These unfathomable losses to the Confederate and Union armies caused heartbreak and advancement in medical knowledge. Union and Confederate physicians learned how to tend to their patients regardless of the atmosphere and worked hard and passionately. Even with the tenacity of the physicians, they still lost the battle against diseases time and time again. Throughout this battle, the medical professionals learned skills that they would be able to put into use later in their practice. Collective medical knowledge in the form of cures, proper hygiene, and health-based infrastructure was also gained from the war that advanced America into the next period of medicine. This paper will cover the types of infections and diseases prevalent during the Civil War and how they were treated during the war, along with how the war changed the treatment and prevention of infection and disease. Some of the main infections and diseases that tore through the ranks of Union and Confederate soldiers include; pneumonia, yellow fever, influenza, bronchitis, gangrene, bacteremia, typhoid, diarrhea/dysentery, smallpox, and malaria. Many of these diseases were preventable if the correct prevention steps were taken. For example, typhoid could have been prevented if the water sources were protected properly from defecation and waste. Malaria could also have been prevented through the use of quinine. Many of these deaths occurred due to the fact that American practitioners at the time did not know how to treat or prevent these diseases. The only infection that had a useful vaccine was smallpox, with a few other diseases like malaria not having well-established cures. Many of these deaths due to disease could also have been prevented with proper training of sanitation procedures. Some of the sanitation issues include latrines too close to water sources, slaughter pens near mess areas, and soldiers sleeping with all their clothes on to stay warm. While these sanitation concerns did aid in the spread of disease, a large portion of the infected individuals came from injuries they had received in combat. It was estimated that there was a total of 221,000 soldiers wounded in the war. Most of the wounded went to army hospitals where they would be exposed to more disease that lay prevalent in the hospitals. Disease was so common in Civil War hospitals that medical personnel would put out chemicals like alcohol, bromine, carbolic acid, mercuric chloride, and sodium hypochlorite to freshen the air. This helped to not only deodorize the air but to clean it of diseases. In the book called Reminiscence of the Hospitals of Columbia, S.C. During the Four Years of the Civil War by Campbell Bryce, many stories are told of poor hospital conditions. One story speaks about a sixteen-year-old boy who was on the road for four days to the Columbia hospital due to there not being room at a Richmond hospital for him. He had a blister that had not been removed in Richmond by accident and due to the motion of the long ride, it had multiplied into six blisters that were said to be filled with life (infection). The nurses at the hospital took off his soiled clothes, put him in a warm bath and dressed his blisters, even though they knew he will most likely not make it. After suffering for a week, he died from his ailments. Bryces book is covered with heartbreaking stories of disease and infection like this, which helps to paint a picture of just how unsanitary these hospital conditions were. In order to prevent death from infection and disease in many of these hospitals, surgeons generally opted to remove the infected area from the patient as soon as possible. Generally, this was done through amputation. Three-quarters of all operations were amputations, totaling approximately 60,000 amputations. These amputations were generally preventative because if the infected area was not removed the patient would most likely die from the infection. This was shown in an excerpt from the United State Service Magazine. The journal article was written by a hospital surgeon who references doing procedures on patients and the reactions from each patient. The patients referenced in the journal article work to paint a vivid picture of the struggles of these amputees during their operations. One of the stories written was about a soldier with a thigh injury caused by a cannonball. The doctor stated that the patient was almost a hopeless case whether the limb was amputated or treated. The d octor decided the best chance was to remove the limb after the patient broke into tears and proclaimed: Oh, doctor, for Gods sake save my life, for I am not fit to die! But sadly, after his operation, he passed away. The stigma around many of the Civil War army surgeons of the time is that they had very little training, were clumsy and were not very knowledgeable in medicine and hygiene. Because of this, war zones were a medical disaster. While some of this may be true, most of the Civil War physicians were sincere and very hard working. They knew how to tend to injuries like fractures, amputations, and general wound care. The issue did not come from their lack of surgical knowledge as much as their lack of hygiene knowledge. These battlefield injuries were done hastily, and physicians almost never worried about strict hygiene, which led to infection and the eventual death of many of their patients. Most of the individuals in the medical community at the time gained their knowledge through apprenticeships. Because of this, there was a massive need for university-educated medical doctors to help in the diagnosing and treatment of diseases. Because of this ill-preparedness and lack of knowledge, th ere was a surge in medical advancements during and after the war in order to keep up with the demand for medicine and patient care. One of the ways these advancements came about was the use of surgeon general sponsored investigations. An example of this is when surgeon general, William Hammond, sponsored a study of the treatment, pathology, transmission, and causes of hospital gangrene. From this study, it was found that bromine was effective in treating gangrene. The procedure used was, to soak the dressings that are used on the patients wounds in bromine. To find these cures, doctors started to use more modern tools like the microscopes. This helped in finding these cures because the doctors were able to look at the disease at a cellular level and make assumptions from their finding that would never have been found from solely studying the patients. The deaths of the soldiers acted as a catalyst for medical research which helped to propel American medicine forward after the war. Another aspect that emerged from the Civil war was ambulance systems. The medical director of the army of the Potomac, Jonathan Letterman, Surgeon General William Hammond, and General George B McClellan worked together to create the ambulance corps. These early ambulance systems would pave the runway for todays modern ambulance services. An example of one of these early ambulances can be seen below in figure 1. These ambulances were horse-drawn and consisted of two trained attendants much like the ambulance systems of today. Surgeon General William Hammond also created the Army Medical Museum after the war. He had a large collection of pathological specimens gathered from surgeons working in the war. This museum eventually became the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology in the twentieth century and became one of the top establishments for researching and consulting in the field of pathology. Prosthetic technology also took a leap forward due to the high number of amputations during the Civil War. Prosthetic limbs were designed to be lightweight, easy to use, durable and comfortable for the amputee. Many returning union soldiers received limbs from the government, but the Confederate veterans did not receive compensation for a prosthetic until the 1880s. Many inventors also created products to help amputees return to normal life. Some of these products include hand-powered tricycles for lower extremity amputees and a combination knife and fork utensil for upper extremity amputees. The death toll from both side due to infections and diseases was 660,000 soldiers at the end of the war. This massive loss to human life was in part due to the severe lapse in knowledge by the medical community at the beginning of the war. Although, the medical professionals who were a part of the Civil War gained valuable knowledge and experience in treating diseases and severe injuries like amputations. This helped to push medical technologies and methods forward and paved the way for many aspects of our medical system today. After the war, these physicians went on to change the world of medicine. They created new types of prosthetics that worked better and were more comfortable for the users. The physicians achieved in curing many of the diseases that plagued their work during the war. Lastly, they worked to create a better, healthier world using knowledge gained from the war. While the path to this knowledge was dark and tragic, it helped to bring about one of the biggest changes in American medical treatment.

Essay on The Great Gatsby - 1254 Words

In Class Essay To what extent is The Great Gatsby a moral novel. Discuss. The society our nation lives in today has developed morals and principles through the lessons experienced from the past. The Roaring Twenties was a time of change and a chance to pave a path for the person you wanted to become. Morals and principles served as guidelines rather than rules and were merely preached that practiced. Thus, the severity of the immoral actions taking place created opportunities for lessons to be learned. In his novel The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald illustrated various moral lessons through the downfall and corruption of various characters based on their immoral actions. The narrator, Nick Carraway is a young man who throughout the†¦show more content†¦This shows that one should never let love for another blind them from reality. Finally, after killing Myrtle, while feeling worried and guilty Daisy allows herself to let Gatsby blame the entire incident upon himself. She is aware of the consequences of committing a murder and yet she flees the a rea leaving those around her to clean up her mess. Although she may have escaped the outcome of her actions, Daisy would not be able to escape her guilty conscience. The Great Gatsby illustrates the consequences of allowing your judgment to be affected by emotions and so is definitely a moral novel. Not only does the novel teach us to keep our judgment clear of distractions, it also demonstrates that one should follow their own path and not others. Firstly, because Myrtle is bored with her own life she chooses to improve her situation by dating Tom attempting to fit into his wealthy lifestyle. With the influence of the dress her personality had also undergone a change.(33) Myrtle flaunts the dress as if it were something of her everyday life pretending to fit into the temporary life of material wealth. 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Southern Dialect in William Faulkner Essay Example For Students

Southern Dialect in William Faulkner Essay In the writings of William Faulkner, the reader may sense that the author has created an entire world which directly reflects his own personal experience. Faulkner writes about the area in and around Mississippi, where he is from, during the post-Civil War period. It is most frequently Northern Mississippi that Faulkner uses for his literary territory, changing Oxford to Jefferson and Lafayette County to Yoknapatawpha County, because it is here that he lived most of his life and wrote of the people he knew. Faulkners stories focus on the Southeastern United States at a time period when old traditions began to clash with new ideals. This is an era in American history with which most people can quickly identify, whether they are Southern or not. The South in Faulkners works are complete with all the expected features: an agricultural society, Southern belles and gentlemen, racial tensions, and especially the common characteristics of Southern speech. Faulkner strays from the normal cus toms of Northern literature to present a realistic portrait of the South that he grew up in. In doing so, he comes up with an excellent sample of the Southern language, including linguistic qualities of both black and white speech. Faulkner establishes a unique literary voice which is recognizable due to variances from standard English in vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammatical form, while juxtaposing speech elements foreign to anyone not familiar with Southern heritage. The works of William Faulkner succeed in creating a literary dialect which is relatively consistent throughout all of his stories. A literary dialect is best defined as an authors attempt to represent in writing a speech that is restricted regionally, socially, or both (Ives 146). In Faulkners writing, this can be described by such traits as an intentional misspelling, like marster for master, or in the use of Miss along with the given first name of a female, as in Miss Corrie. These, amongst countless other examples, are distinctly Southern speech traditions. Anyone not from the South may need explanations of much of Faulkners pronunciations, words, usages, and language customs which the author himself takes for granted. Because Faulkner has employed such a vast and complex Southern dialect in his stories, the language he uses has become a microcosm of Southern language as a whole. As one critic has noted, local forms of speech maintain ones individual dignity in a homogenizing worl d (Burkett vii). In Faulkner, this local speech is a mixture of Southern American and Negro dialogue with all the folklore from Virginia to Louisiana, Florida to Texas (Brown 2). Faulkners dialect is effective both as a literary device and as a link between the American English language and American culture and history, specifically in the Southeast. The South is probably the most linguistically diversified part of the nation. Blacks and whites from Atlanta to Charleston to Nashville speak a different form of standard English in a different version of the Southern accent. Part of this linguistic diversity is reflected in the way that the Southern aristocracy can shift not only vocabulary and pronunciation, but even grammar, according to the audience ((1)McDavid 219). This technique is very much alive in Faulkners work. For example, in The Reivers, the upper-class grandfather character Boss is an educated man of high social standing in the community. Yet, when he is in the company of only his grandson Lucius, as part of a lecture, he says the safe things aint always the best things ((2)Faulkner 117). Throughout the book, Bosss speech moves from the formal to the informal, largely depending on the intimacy he feels with the person or persons to whom he is speaking. Such a case illustrates that Faulkner is well aware of the prestige norms that exist in Southern speech, and he takes advantage of this knowledge. As Feagin points out, in the Southeast, the way in which nonstandard English is employed demonstrates a symbol of intimacy and local loyalty, as well as a gauge of the level of integration into a close-knit network (Feagin 222). Faulkners characters reveal a tendency to speak in a slang-like or non-prescriptive grammar when they converse with other characters that they know well, often apparent in the form of jokes and metaphorical language. Similarly to the aristocratic speaker, the less educated Southern speaker often attempts to improve his or her speech when in a formal setting. McDavid asserts that the common way to do so is by using bigger words and longer sentences, sometimes resulting in the ridiculous ((2)McDavid 265). A good example of such in Faulkner occurs in As I Lay Dying when Anse, a rural, farming man, attempts to sound eloquent at a time of utmost solemnity. During a funeral speech, Anse states the following:The somebody you was young with and you growed old in her and she growed old in you, seeing the old coming on and it was the one somebody you could hear say it dont matter and know it was the truth outen the hard world and all a mans grief and trials((1)Faulkner 511). It is obvious that Anse intends to speak formally in this situation, thus Faulkner follows McDavids rule of Southern speech about the elongation of sentences and its irregular result. This passage is successful in two ways. First, it r eveals a realistic trait common in the Southeast, reflecting the solidarity norm based on local non-standard speech (Feagin 219). Second, it serves as a very powerful literary technique because the oration captures the high level of sincerity in the speaking character. Another highly common form of Southern dialect which is often seen in Faulkners writing is the presence of African American speech features. There are numerous examples of black speech in Faulkner that follow linguistic patterns. However, it is the purpose of this essay to view only a few of the most common. Alphonso Smith defines the most general rule of Southern Negro speech as the tendency to pronounce words like more, store, four, and floor without the /r/ sound, as in mo, sto, fo, and flo (Smith 365). Faulkner holds true to this generalization by narrating similar speech from the black characters in his books. For instance, in As I Lay Dying, the character Cash offers a statement which proves Faulkners conformity to this black English norm when he says, I aint so sho that ere a man has the right to say what is crazy and what aint ((1)Faulkner 221). Further, linguists such as Raven and Virginia McDavid have gathered that the oldest and least educated, as well as many Negro informants in their Southern language studies have demonstrated dominant usage of such ungrammatical verb past tenses as div for dive, growed for grow, and riz for rise ((3)McDavid 264-280). Accordingly, in Faulkners The Sound and the Fury, there is an immense sign on the Negro Second Baptist Church which reads He Is Ris. Faulkner also depicts the vernacular of Southern blacks in his opulent use of repetition and Biblical allusion. It has been noted by researchers of Southern linguistics that a strong relationship exists between the rituals of black churches and everyday black speech customs. Examples of this relationship include religious reference, long pauses, swaying and gesturing, and repetition (Jones-Jackson 115-124 ). Although it is impossible to identify with many of these aspects of black speech while reading words on a page, it is clear that Faulkner takes advantage of those aspects that the readers can detect. For instance, all of his works display abundant uses of the words Jesus, heaven, and crucifixion, and sometimes choir hymns such as all folks talkin bout heaven aint gwine dar appear in the speech of black characters (Brown 19-222). Other Negro language features common in Faulkner are loss of /r/ at the end of words as in betta for better, use of be substituted for all tenses of the word be, as well as the zero copula, or possession indicated without a possessive morpheme (Stewart 57). Much of Faulkners writing has viewed blacks humanely, giving them a significant voice in the Southern American culture. However, for the most part, the literature reflects the general social attitude towards blacks at the time, which renders their language substandard and basically inferior to that of most whites. United nations Essay SummaryFaulkners representation of Southern speech in his writing, follows the actual linguistic parameters of the Southern Lowland dialect very closely, or Southern Proper by Raven McDavids classification. Faulkner makes a strong effort to display the various facets of this dialect even though many of them cannot really be sensed through writing alone. For instance, the only true aspects of language that are excluded in writing are facial and bodily expressions accompanying speech, pauses and changes in pitch or volume, and speed of articulation. Generally speaking, however, these features are secondary in comparison with pronunciation, grammar, and word usage. Faulkners literary dialect is consistent with several of the prevailing trends of Southern speech. For one, it supports the theory of Southern language diversity due to the fact that Faulkners is a distinctly Southern dialect, yet has many differences from other Southern dialects, including the use of p hrases like trade days (days set aside for auctioning) only used in the immediate area (Brown 202). Also, Faulkners writing presents the large quantity of archaic and folk utterances in the Negro dialect, which are the result of years of insufficient educational opportunity. One other trait of Faulkners language that is common to the popular conception of Southern dialects is the occasional loss of postvocalic /r/, as in the words baun for born, and bastud for bastard. These words, along with dozens of others appearing in Faulkners stories, are defined as Southern in nature in the Dictionary of American Regional English (DARE). Faulkner, quite simply, delineates a place rich in the tradition and pride of the average Southerner. Consequently, the speech in his text also carries some of the stigmas attached to Southern life itself. First and foremost of these blemishes is the pervading tone of racism, automated by the appearance of the word nigger in practically all of Faulkners works . Although the word does represent the authenticity of Faulkners dialect, it will always carry with it an arresting level of shame and disgrace. The feeling of racism is perpetuated by the fact that most of the Negro speech in Faulkner is slightly less standard than white speech, giving it a hint of inferiority. Although Faulkner explores the issue of racism with an open mind and even attempts to repudiate some of the negative connotations associated with blacks, his genuine Southern tongue cannot completely detach from the very real evils of racial injustice in Southern American history. Finally, the dialect in these stories, in all of its originality, continues to uphold the popular belief that Southern English is, in many instances, bad English employed by less intelligent speakers. This setback is mainly attributable in Faulkners writing to the double negatives, use of aint, and use of third person dont. Contrary to these negative opinions however, most of the cases of bad gramm ar here are actually remnants of archaic proper English rather than unintelligent corruptions of modern English. Thus Faulkners storytelling dialect creates a lasting impression of his Southern world, encompassing both the common and unique, the positive and the negative. In demonstrating his ability to author such a realistic, yet original world, drawing on his own natural dialect, Faulkner insists that life is narrative, based on the preeminence of language in our lives (Lockyer xii). Bibliography:Works CitedBrown, Calvin S. A Glossary of Faulkners South. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976. Burkett, Eva M. American English Dialects in Literature. London: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1978. Dictionary of American Regional English. New York: Oxford Press, 1989. (1)Faulkner, William. As I Lay Dying and The Sound and the Fury. New York: The Modern Library, 1966. (2)Faulkner, William. The Reivers. New York: Random House, 1982. Feagin, Crawford. Competing Norms in the White Speech of Anniston, Alabama. Montgomery and Bailey, 1986. 216-234. Ives, Sumner. A Theory of Literary Dialect. A Various Language. Ed. Williamson and Burke. New York: Hold, Rhinehart, Winston, 1971. 145-177. Jones-Jackson, Patricia. Let the Church Say Amen: The Language of Religious Rituals in Coastal South Carolina. Crucible of Carolina: Essays in the Development of Gullah Language and Culture. Ed. Michael Montgomery. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1994. 115-124. Lockyer, Judith. Ordered By Words: Language and Narration in the Novels of William Faulkner. Southern Illinois University Press, 1991. (1)McDavid, Raven I., Jr. Dialectology: Where Linguistics Meets the People. The Emory University Quarterly XXIII (Winter, 1967), 219. (2)McDavid, Raven I., Jr. Go Slow in Ethnic Attribution: Geographic Mobility and Dialect Prejudices. Varieties of Present-Day English. Ed. Richard W. Bailey and Jay L. Robinson. New York: Macmillan Company, 1973. 258-270. (3)McDavid, Raven I., Jr., and Virginia McDavid. Kentucky Verb Forms. Montgomery and Bailey, 1986. 264-293. Smith, Alphonso. Cambridge History of American Literature. New York: Macmillan Company, 1951. Stewart, William A. Observations on the Problem of Defining Negro Dialect. The Florida FL Reporter IX, Nos. 1 and 2 (Spring/Fall, 1971), 47-57.